OPEN SCIENCE TRAINING AND EDUCATION: CHALLENGES AND DIFFICULTIES ON
THE RESEARCHERS’ SIDE AND IN PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT
Open Access: what’s in it for me as an early career
researcher?
Nancy Pontika
When entering the research world, Early Career Researchers (ECRs) may
encounter difficulties building a good reputation for their research, its
quality and the research results. Open access is the movement that could
assist ECRs to: (a) widely disseminate their scholarly outputs, (b)
demonstrate the research and societal impact of their work and, (c)
organise online research portfolios that can be accessed by all
researchers, as well as prospective employers.
Abstract
Scholarly CommunicationKeywords
Context In the current scholarly communications domain ECRs encounter challenges trying
to establish themselves as researchers and make the quality of their research work
known amongst their research community [Bazeley, 2003]. ECRs need to entrench
themselves not only amongst their subject field peers but also in interdisciplinary
fields; in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework (REF), a periodical research
assessment exercise in the U.K., 80% of the submitted research that demonstrated a
societal impact was interdisciplinary [Rylance, 2015]. Through interdisciplinary
research ECRs can prove that the impact of their research affects both economic
growth and societal wellbeing. In addition, ECRs need to perform well in journal
and publication metrics, which are essential components for career promotion,
bidding and being awarded grants, since funding bodies decide on resources’
allocation based on these metrics [Hobbs, 2006; Sastry and Bekhradnia, 2014].
In this highly competitive environment, the open access movement can help ECRs
promote effectively both their research work and research outputs. According to
the Budapest Open Access Initiative [2001], the definition of open access, applies to
literature that has
“free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read,
download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these
articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for
any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other
than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself.”
Comment Journal of Science Communication 14(04)(2015)C04 1
Technological innovations, such as the low cost of Internet connection and the
personal computer, along with the author’s willingness to grant access rights to the
users of these research outputs, have made the application of open access possible
[Suber, 2012].
Open access can be delivered via two routes: open access journals and open
repositories. Open access journals function the same way as traditional
subscription based journals; they have editorial boards, conduct peer-reviews and
have a publication periodicity. The only difference from traditional journals is that
open access journals do not charge a publication fee to the end user, but provide
access to their research outputs free of charge to anyone in the world. In order to
financially sustain their publications, open access journals have developed
alternative business models [OASIS, 2012], such as advertising, crowdsourcing,
institutional subsidies, article processing charges and submission fees.
The repositories, on the other hand, are divided into two categories; the
institutional repositories, which collect the research outputs of one institution, and
the subject/disciplinary repositories, which hold subject-specific content. For
example the repository arXiv.org (http://arxiv.org/), which is the first established
subject repository, has a collection of outputs in physics, mathematics and
computer science. The biggest difference between open access journals and
repositories is that the latter do not conduct peer-review, but they may host outputs
that have been peer-reviewed somewhere else [Suber, 2012].
For the past fifteen years the availability of open access research outputs has
grown dramatically [Morrison, 2015]. In a 2003 study McVeigh [2004] discovered
that only 2.9% of journal articles were published openly accessible, while in
2006 this number increased to 8.1% and the percentage of journal articles deposited
in repositories was close to 11.3% [Björk, Roos and Lauri, 2011]. In 2010 the total
amount of open access publications had reached 23% [Gargouri et al., 2012]. Laakso
and Björk [2012] found that in 11 years (2000–2011) almost 350,000 articles were
published in pure open access and hybrid journals. In August 2015, the Directory
of Open Access Journals (https://doaj.org/), a database that indexes quality open
access journals, listed around 10,501 journals from all over the world and from
all scientific fields. At the same time, the Directory of Open Access Repositories
(http://www.opendoar.org/) listed about 2,953 repositories. In addition, a list of
subject repositories from the Open Access Directory (http://oad.simmons.edu/), a
wiki on factual lists on open access, listed more than 100 disciplinary repositories. In
the U.K. only, according to a study from Björk, Roos and Lauri [2011], seven-eighths
of the 40% of the U.K.’s research outputs are provided open access via repositories.
Open access does not limit the researchers’ freedom to choose their favourite
journal title in which to publish their research. On the contrary, open access aims to
provide researchers with an appropriate open access publication route, irrelevant of
their decision of where they choose to publish. If researchers cannot find a
prestigious open access journal in their subject field and decide to publish their
outputs in a subscription based journal, they can still self-archive, i.e. deposit a
suitable version of the output, in a repository. Open access delivered through
self-archiving can be either immediate or delayed. Open access that is delayed,
occurs after an embargo period during which the publication needs to remain
closed access [Suber, 2012].
JCOM 14(04)(2015)C04 2
Publishing
qualities and
open access
When the first journal, the Journal des Sçavans, was published it aimed to improve
communication between scholars. Publishing, in its original concept, was only a
means for scholars to share information and knowledge amongst peers [Peek and
Newby, 1996]. About 350 years later the scholarly communications practices
changed and the structure turned into something more than just information
exchange. There are three prominent challenges hardships in the current system.
Firstly, copyright restricts access and the use and reuse of important scientific
information [Geneva, 2003]. Secondly, journal subscription prices keep growing
faster than inflation [Bosch and Henderson, 2013], causing renewal affordability
issues hardships to libraries. Finally, the journal impact factor, a quantitative
indicator resulting from the average number of cited articles in a journal, which
denotes a journal’s quality and prestige; the impact factor is perhaps the most
important research evaluation tool, which has been widely discussed and its ability
to reveal qualitative research has often been questioned [Seglen, 1997; Vanclay,
2011; Saha, Saint and Christakis, 2003; Kurmis, 2003].
Unfortunately, ECRs have inherited a malfunctioning scholarly communications
system in which they are asked to perform research, publish their research outputs,
distinguish themselves and eventually flourish in their research careers.
According to Sompel et al. [2004] the development of a new scholarly
communications system is crucial and must fulfil four indispensable operations:
1. Registration: allowing the recognition of previous scholarly results.
2. Certification: establishing the validity of a scholarly claim.
3. Awareness: allowing actors in the system to remain aware of new claims.
4. Archiving: maintaining the scholarly record over time.
When these four operations are combined, a “value chain” concept emerges in the
scholarly communications system where all of its entities are structured together.
When publishing a research output the publisher documents the submission date of
the output (registration), conducting peer reviews certifies the arguments made in
it (certification) and the published paper with its citations satisfies the recognition
requirement (awareness). Databases or repositories preserve the scholarly output
over time (archiving) and achieve the goal of their preservation and maintenance.
Open access publications successfully apply these aforementioned operations via
the open access publication routes (Table 1). The registration, awareness and
archiving components can be achieved via both routes - the open access journals
and repositories — since they both have the ability to record an output’s
submission date, allow the actors in the system to remain aware of the new
publications and preserve a research output for future use. Peer review is the sole
component that can be assigned to journals only, since conducting peer review is
traditionally an action performed by journals and not by repositories; as it has
already been mentioned, outputs that have been peer-reviewed by journals
oftentimes are self-archived in repositories.
This demonstrates that publishing and disseminating a research output via an open
access route can fulfil all the requirements of the scholarly communications system.
JCOM 14(04)(2015)C04 3
Table 1. Open access application of publishing qualities.
Registration Certification Awareness Archiving
Intellectual Research Research Research
Property validity accessibility output preservation
certification assurance for future use
Open access X X X X
journals
Institutional or X X X
subject repositories
Simultaneously, it allows ECRs the opportunity to provide their research
publications to readers free of cost and free of most copyright restrictions. When
ECRs disseminate their research openly to everyone, they can enjoy immediate
visibility of their research, transparent management of the information and increase
their impact. Others can read, use, re-use, build, crawl and text-mine the existing
research outputs. All this, promotes science, enhances education, and brings back
to the public access to knowledge through the research they have funded and
allows equal opportunities for learning. Therefore, the benefits of open access are
not limited to authors only, but extend to researchers and the general public as well.
How can open
access benefit
early career
researchers?
Recently we are experiencing two shifts in the way funding bodies assess the
quality of research and allocate grants. Firstly, they are introducing mandatory
open access policies, the implementation of which is essential, since
non-compliance with these requirements may result in researchers risking their
funding. Therefore, it can safely be stated that currently open access is not applied
merely by those who envision an improved scholarly communications landscape,
but is gaining recognition and support from one of the most important research
stakeholder groups. Secondly, funders are interested in seeing that the researchers
they fund are in a position to demonstrate adequately both the research results and
the research impact.
Open access
citation impact
From 2001 up until the present, many studies have been conducted showing how
articles that are openly accessible to everyone in the world, gain a citation
advantage over those outputs that are behind an access barrier [SPARC Europe,
2014]. According to the current bibliography there is at least one study for every
scientific field, which proves that the open access citation advantage is prominent.
Some of the most recent studies are for example the report from Donovan, Watson
and Osborne [2014] who demonstrate that there is a citation advantage of 53% in
the law review articles. In the field of civil engineering, it was discovered that open
access articles received 29% more citations [Koler-Povh, Juznic and Turk, 2014].
Frisch et al. [2014] studied the area of cytopathology and discovered that the open
access publications of the same author gained a higher citation than the closed
access articles. Economics, research conducted on 639 articles published in 2005
from 13 economics journals, discovered that open access journals gain significantly
higher citations [Wohlrade and Birkmeier, 2014].
JCOM 14(04)(2015)C04 4
A citation advantage does not only seem to be a privilege gained by articles that are
provided openly. Pinowar and Vision [2013] investigated whether the open
provision of data would increase an article’s citation, to discover that authors who
had made their articles available openly via a repository and created the
relationship between the data and the research paper received 9% more citations
than comparable papers that had not provided the dataset. The citation benefit
becomes more important for ECRs, since they need to establish a reputation in their
field and make their research known. By providing their outputs openly accessible
ECRs not only gain more citations, but they can also create an online portfolio and
showcase their work to everyone who may be interested to discover the full corpus
of their research. Such examples are useful for prospective employers, funders or
other researchers who are looking for project collaborators, located either nationally
or internationally.
Research and
societal impact
ECRs cannot be limited to the production of quality research results only. They
need to demonstrate a research impact, but more importantly they have to be in a
position to demonstrate a societal impact for their research. The Higher Education
Funding Council for England (HEFCE) conducts a periodic research quality
exercise, the REF. The standards and proportions that influence the quality of the
conducted research in this exercise are [HEFCE, 2011]:
– the research outputs by 65%
– their impact by 20%, which will increase in the forthcoming REF periods, and
– their environment.
The importance of the research and societal impact is also an essential feature of the
European Union Seventh Framework Programme, which has devoted plenty of
effort to discover the “impacts at the level of [the project’s] organisation, market or
society. . . ” [Arnold et al., 2011, p. 4]. In Horizon 2020 [European Commission,
2014], the European Union’s current funding programme, it is noted that the
research and societal impact must be considered during the project proposal and
must be followed throughout the period of the research, up until the dissemination
of the project’s results and the end of the project. At this point, it is crucial to
mention that this research framework indicates that proof of impact needs to be
demonstrated throughout the whole research life cycle and not just the research
results.
Funders are not solely interested in a research output in the form of an article, but
in the wider concept of having the research results delivered, disseminated and
integrated effectively to all research stakeholders and the marketplace. To secure
research funding ECRs need to successfully address the societal impact of their
publications, which can be accomplished when all the components of the research
life cycle are openly available. Such components can be research data, software
code, publications, educational resources, reports and policy briefs.
To succeed in this ECRs are required not only to apply open access to their research
publications, but also to move a step forward and consider the adoption and
JCOM 14(04)(2015)C04 5
implementation of open science. According to its definition, open science is, “the
conduction of science in a way that others can collaborate and contribute, where
research data, lab notes and other research processes are freely available, with
terms that allow reuse, redistribution and reproduction of the research” [FOSTER,
2014]. Therefore, currently there is a tendency to move from the open accessibility
of the results of a research output only, to openness throughout the whole research
life cycle, with workflows to enable clarity, reproducibility, collaboration,
knowledge circulation and transfer.
With open science ECRs can enable the results and the knowledge produced in the
research project to be conveyed to society. Apart from applying open access to the
research results, some common practices for enabling open science are:
– Opening up of the research datasets to make them discoverable,
understandable and re-usable.
– Register publications, datasets and software with Digital Object Identifiers
(DOIs) to enable discoverability.
– Accompany the research publication with the data sets to enable research
reproducibility.
– Use the open science tools and adopt open science practices to establish the
connection between the research project and the societal impact [Grigorov
et al., 2015].
How to promote
Open Access
The ECRs of today, who are the researchers of tomorrow, can grasp the opportunity
that the Internet has to offer and disseminate their articles using the two available
routes to open access, the open access journals and open repositories. In order to
succeed in the promotion of open access and produce a wider adoption of open
access practices from their peers, ECRs can organise discussions on the benefits of
open access and use personal examples taken from their own experiences in their
research career. When co-authoring research outputs they can consider the
possibility of requesting either a publication in an open access journal or
self-archiving the output in a repository. It is essential for ECRs to examine the
open access benefits with their supervisors and the leading researchers in their
institutions. The arguments that could be used to convince senior researchers,
whose open access practices are not perhaps part of their publishing culture
[Research Information Network, 2010], could be that open access currently is a
funder requirement and compliance is essential to secure future funding. In
addition, some other advocacy arguments could be that open access increases the
papers’ citation rate and that with open access authors can retain use and
distribution rights for themselves. Furthermore, by demonstrating the benefits of
open access in practice they can bring other researchers closer to adopting open
access best practices too. For example, whenever ECRs are asked to send a copy of
a research output to their peers they could send the link of the archived paper in
the repository, rather than the file itself [Suber, 2007].
At an institutional level, ECRs can use informal channels to spread the open access
message, such as discussions, posts in student association’s blogs, or articles at the
JCOM 14(04)(2015)C04 6
institution’s newspaper. They can also form groups with their classmates,
colleagues and peers, meet on a regular basis and discuss open access and the
alternative solutions that the movement has to offer to the existing dysfunctional
scholarly communications system. ECRs should also be aware of some of the
unfortunate myths around open access. Some of the common arguments often used
include the myth that open access avoids peer-review, or that open access revokes
copyright, or that a publication without a subscription cost is a low quality
publication. When encountering such cases ECRs can direct others to Peter Suber’s
book Open Access [2012], which is a very good start to demystify those myths or
other reading in the open access literature.
Early career researchers can also express their open access interest to the librarians
within their institution. Librarians are all too familiar with the journal subscription
crisis, journal subscriptions rise higher than inflation [Frazier, 2001; Bosch and
Henderson, 2013] and even the wealthiest universities cannot afford to renew
journal subscriptions [Sample, 2012], and feel this effect first hand. They are also
aware of the transformation of the scholarly communications system, during the
previous two decades, but are also in a position to point out the emerging trends
and practices towards open access and open science [Suber, 2007].
Open Access
projects
General awareness of the development of open access has seen a significant growth
and as a result there are many projects related to open access. Here the author
presents a selection of projects that she benefitted from and has personally used
while she was a doctoral student. These resources will assist ECRs in their search
for open access scientific publications or in their effort to promote the open access
movement.
COnnecting REpositories — CORE
CORE (http://core.ac.uk/) is one of the largest search engines for open access
articles from all over the world. At the time of writing this paper, CORE was
harvesting around 700 repositories and open access journals, had over 20 million
records and around 2 million full-texts. The aim of this project is to collect all open
access research outputs and make them discoverable from one place. By searching
the CORE search engine, users are in a position to discover freely available
peer-reviewed research outputs.
Open Access Button — OA Button
The goal of the OA Button (https://www.openaccessbutton.org/) project is to
discover the number of research outputs that are behind a subscription paywall.
The OA Button users can mark the research outputs they cannot access by
downloading the OA Button bookmarklet. When users bookmark those restricted
items, the system automatically connects to CORE and Google Scholar and searches
for an available open access version of the same research output.
JCOM 14(04)(2015)C04 7
Open Access Tracking Project (OATP)
The OATP (http://tagteam.harvard.edu/hubs/oatp/items) uses social tagging to
collect all the latest developments in open access to scientific research; the project
does not limit itself to open access news only, but contains resources about open
data, open educational resources and anything related to open science. The
project’s aims are to provide a real-time information service with news related to
open access and to organise open access knowledge. Those who are interested in
the latest developments of open access can subscribe to the daily news feed.
SPARC Europe Open Access Diary
In an effort to capture open access progress in Europe, the SPARC Europe Open
Access Diary (http://sparceurope.org/oadiaryeurope/) collects data related to
Europe from the OATP and then highlights the most important news, such as open
access funders’ policies, presentations, and other news related to the movement.
Users can visit this site to get information about the open access progress in their
country or get information about the progress of open access in Europe.
Right to Research Coalition — R2RC
The R2RC (http://www.righttoresearch.org/) is a student and early career
researcher organisation that aims to promote open access. The coalition members
support the position that students should have access to all research articles they
require and not only to those that their institutions subscribe to. Users can join the
R2RC for two reasons: to become educated about open access and to promote open
access in their institutions or subject fields.
OpenCon
The OpenCon (http://www.opencon2015.org/) is an annual conference aimed at
students and early career researchers who are interested in the promotion of open
access, open data and open science in general. The conference offers funding
opportunities for students, while for those who cannot attend the conference, there
is also free to access satellite live streaming.
Open Access Week
Every year, during the third week of October, the scholarly community celebrates
the International Open Access Week (http://www.openaccessweek.org/) with
events that take place world-wide. These events can be registered on the open
access week website, which also contains plenty of open access ready to use
advocacy material. Users can visit this resource to discover an open access event in
their area, get ideas for open access events and download a variety of open access
materials.
JCOM 14(04)(2015)C04 8
Facilitate Open Science Training for European Research — FOSTER
The FOSTER (https://www.fosteropenscience.eu/) project maintains a portal that
contains resources on open science. According to the open science taxonomy
(https://www.fosteropenscience.eu/resources) open access is a fundamental
concept in the open science structure, therefore the users who visit this project will
be in a position to discover resources and online courses relating not only to open
access, but to all open science components.
Open Researcher and Contributor ID (ORCID)
ORCID (http://orcid.org/) assigns a unique identifier to researchers, by which
they can identify themselves and link their publications. The use of this ID enables
researchers to map a whole project, by linking grant submissions to research
outputs. Currently, some funding agencies require the use of ORCID IDs as part of
their policies’ compliance requirements.
Conclusions In this competitive, yet malfunctioning, scholarly communications system, ECRs
can increase the visibility of their research outputs by choosing to open up the
findings of their research. Open access increases the number of citations of the
research outputs, assists with demonstrating a research and societal impact for their
research, enables compliance with funders’ open access policies and, when funders’
open access requirements are fully implemented, it secures research funding. Open
access advocacy is a crucial strategy for the promotion of open access and ERCs
could efficiently and effectively speed up the adoption of open access by sharing
their testimonies on how they have used and benefited from open access.
Acknowledgments This essay is based on a presentation that took place on July 7, 2015 at the
University of Trieste as part of the FOSTER-funded seminar “Empowering Graduate
Students: Science dissemination and science communication ‘in the open’ ”. The projects
mentioned in the last section of this essay were presented that day; currently, the
author is affiliated with some of the presented projects. The author would like to
thank Stefania Arabito for inviting her to present at the seminar, Laurian
Williamson for her valuable input on this paper and the anonymous peer-reviewers
for their valuable comments.
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Author Nancy Pontika is an Open Access Aggregation Officer at the COnnecting
REpositories (CORE) project, Knowledge Media Institute, Open University, U.K. .
She is also working on the European-funded project Facilitate Open Science
Training for European Research (FOSTER). She holds a PhD from Simmons
College, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A. on scholarly communications, with a focus
on open access. E-mail: pontika.nancy@gmail.com.
Pontika, N. (2015). ‘Open Access: what’s in it for me as an early career researcher?’.How to cite
JCOM 14 (04), C04.
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